Media System

Srilanka
Brief Early History
At the beginning of the post- independence era, broadcasting was a state monopoly and the press was a private duopoly. Over the last half- century, the country’s media scene has changed considerably, with the government asserting a dominant role in press operations, while conceding the private sector a role in broadcasting operations. The Dutch set up the first printing press on island in 1737. The British producer the first regular publication- the weekly Government Gazette in 1802, the year when the country became a crown colony. The country’s press was largely unregulated from its beginning in1802 until 1973. The patronage of the colonial government and the commercial interests of the British colonists ensured a high degree of government – press harmony in the early history of the press. Governor R. W. Horton sponsored the first English newspaper “Colombo Journal” in 1832. In 1834, a group of English merchants started another biweekly, the Observer and Commercial Advertiser, the country’s oldest newspapers today.
The Sinhala press began in the provincial city of Galle with the publication of Lankaloka in 1860. However, Lakmini Pahana, which commenced on September 11, 1862 was the first Sinhala newspaper registered under the Newspaper Ordinance of 1839. In contrast to the pro- Western and pro- Christian bias of the English press, the Sinhala press exuded a remarkable pro- nationalistic and pro- Buddhist bias. “Lakrivikirana” which started as a weekly in July 1863, turned itself into the second Sinhala daily in 1896.
Muthulingham (1997) and Thillainathan (1997) have outlined the development of the Tamil press in srilanka. The early Tamil publications were religious and ethnonationalists in orientation. The main aim of the publications like Illangai Nasen and Sivabhimani is Hindu revivalism. The national Tamil press emerged with Jaffna- based Eelakesari (1930- 1958) and Colombo- based Virakesari (1930 onwards) and Thinakaran (1932 onwards). The last two are the country’s longest surviving Tamil dailies.
Print Media
The Association Newspapers of Ceyion Ltd (ANCL) and the Times of Ceylon Ltd are the two private newspapers groups which dominated the country’s press. It published the country’s morning dailies with the largest circulation in all three languages. It also published afternoom daily (Janatha), weekend papers (Silumina). The morning daily Lankadipa, an innovative newspaper started by journalist D. B. Dhanapala, commenced publishing another English daily, Morning Times in 1954. The recently ceased publication was Tamil daily ‘Mithram’.
The Swadeshi Newspapers Ltd made an unsuccessful attempt in the 1950s to capture a share of the daily newspaper market. It was the publisher of the nationalist weekly Sinhala Jathiya. A more successful challenge to the press duopoly took place when the country’s largest book publisher, M. D. Gunasena & Co. Ltd, formed the Independent News- Papers Ltd. Dhanapala left the Times Group to edit the new group’s flag bearer.
The country’s newspaper scene changed when the SLFP- led left- wing coalition passed the Associated Newspapers of Ceylon Ltd. law and took over Lake House on July 20, 1973. The government subsidies, the company’s newspapers failed to achieve profitable circulation levels. The Independent Newspapers Ltd. closed down on December 26, 1990. Taking advantage of the emergency regulations, which had gone into force on March 16, 1971 to counter the JVP insurrection, the government sealed the group’s printing press and reintroduction press censorship on April 20, 1974. Internal problems, as well as the inability to compete with two newspaper groups that emerged in the 1980s with modern printing machinery, led to its demise less than 14 yrs.later. Ranjit Wijewardene, who lost the ownership of ANCL in 1973, re-entered the newspaper business with the establishment of the Wijeya Newspaper Ltd.
The Press
Policy and Legal Framework
Article 10 guarantees the freedom of thought, conscience and religion. Article 14 (1) (a) guarantees the freedom of speech and expression, including publication. Article 15 (2) states that this right “shall be subject to such restrictions as may be presented by law in the interest of racial and religious harmony or in relation to Parliamentary Privilege, contempt of court, defamation or incitement to an offence”. Article 15 (7) goes on to declare that the fundamental rights- right to equality; freedom from arbitrary arrest; freedom from arbitrary detention; and freedom of speech, assembly, association, occupation and movement. Udagama wrote that in the mid 1980s, the press was “almost totally under governmental control”. The establishment of a free and responsible press, what actually happened was “the creation of a press tightly controlled by the government which denied freedom of expression to the press and the public and also freedom of information to the public. Srilanka had no form of government control of the press until 1973.

Ownership and Financing
The radio and television which make up the apex of the broadcasting structure are public corporations.
Press freedom was suffered badly toward the late 1980s. Journalists were under threat from both the state and the insurgents. The PA government appointed an official committee to report on laws affecting media freedom and freedom of expression. After five years in power, the government has not gone beyond repealing which had given parliament the right to fine and imprison journalist. In 1997, Supreme Court in positive side rejected as unconstitutional the Srilanka Broadcasting Bill, which would have placed the annual licensing of privately owned audiovisual media under the political control of a government led authority.



Maldives
Maldivan press has a history of some 56 years with some form of organized press. The first newspaper is reported to be Al Islah. The other early newspapers are Sarukaaruge Khabaru and Viyaafari Miyaddhu. In early 1990, Gayoom initiated democratic reforms with particular attention on the freedom of press. The emergence of several “outspoken” magazines and journals, including Sangu and Hukuru, made the government and the elite skittish about a “free press”. By June, the government reversed its policy of liberalization and banned publications that it had not permitted. Writers and journalists were arrested (The Europe World yearbook, 1998; Freedom House, 1998). The conditions for press freedom remain a source of tension between journalists and the government. Maldives had two dailies, two weeklies, two monthlies, two fortnightlies and 38 different magazines. The country’s two dailies Haveeru and Aafathis were established in 1978 and 1979 respectively. The radio system, voice of Maldives was founded in 1962 and Television Maldives in 1978. Both are government operations.
The Press
The operation and regulation of the press should also b considered in the light of Islamic nature of the society. Foreign ownership of media therefore is restricted. Article 13 of the Maldivian Constitution guarantees the freedom of “speech and expression of thought, orally and in writing”. Press freedom is guaranteed and extended under Article13 and 14. More or less 30 other clauses and laws place limis on such freedom on such freedom.
Law no.47/78 requires the registration of newspapers and magazines with the Department of Information and Broadcasting. Articles 5 of law no.3/68 gives the publishers and journalists the right to express heir views, provided as outlined in article 8 of law no. 4/68, they donot touch on three things the law specifies as unconstitutional. In the Maldives, press censorship, while not extensive, is prevalent. Goverment closed down those publications that were critical and didnot have its "sancation".All the publications and circulated in the nation's capital of Male.
Broadcasting
Since Radio and Television are owned operated by the government, the degree of autonomy, who enjoyed the broadcasting system is unclear. Freedom house reported that the" government owned" radio and the "state-run television service pluralistic views".However, journalists practise self- censorship.
Ownership
The voice of Maldives(Radio)and Television on Maldives(channels7) are both government operated and funded. As a result activists are bound to press the Maldivian government to relax its grip on the media. Tension between the government counter insurgency efforts have caused defense expenditures to overshoot budget targets.
Culture
Maldives doesnot come under the influence of India in terms of media reach. Maldives magazines and newspapers from India find a hospitable audience in Maldives. This certainly raises a concern about cultural autonomy, through it has not been an issue so far. They are sensitive to the issue of cultural integrity. Broadcast news covers 47%, entertainment issue 29% by news, 18%religion, 6%education.
Financial Aspects
The afternoon daily Haveeru has a circulation of 4,500 while the morning Aafahis has a circulation of 300.The small population of the country dispersed in 20 atolls cannot support a multiplicity of media backed by advertising. The government subsidizes the press through minimal taxation on the media revenues and lowered registration fees which is helping in media development.

Bangaladesh
political bias in the media are common, although there is considerable controversy concerning the nature of this bias: neither liberals or conservatives are pleased.some have objected that the media often attack corporations. It's true, certainly, that this or that individual corporation may be subjected to media criticism, sometimes even harsh criticism—but it strikes us as significant that the sort of stringent and fundamental reforms needed to bring about real change are virtually never mentioned, let alone advocated.
Financial aspects
The government reported that "no less than 216 dailies and 180 weeklies" are published in the country while Dhaka alone has 73 dailies was 2.05 million while that of the English ones was 182,312. But those data are shown lower circulation while they are shown by other arganisation. Circulation is the basis of almost all print media revenue in Bangladesh, the publishers have not used a standard defination of newspapers sales.Indepent newspaper space sales agents also used inflated circulated figures to justify higher space rates and their commissions.The press in Bangladesh functions within a competitive structure just like other private bussiness. however, Bangladesh has a history of government intervention in the newspaper bussiness.Government cannot penalize the media any more but they can reward them profusely.
Radio
Radio Bangladesh funtioned as an independent government under the sponsorship of the Ministry of Information.Radio broadcasting continues to be a state activity.The recent power boost in Shavar and Comilla stations has brought the entire country within broadcasting range.The shortwave service operates on 4,880khz and 15,520khz in Shavar.
Television
In terms of television there seems a huge development.The operators pay an annual fee of Taka 25,000 for service in the four metropolitan cities of Dhaka, Chittagong,Rajshahi, and Khulna.The number of licensed in the country was estimatd to be 1.5 million. Community viewing has not yet become widespread because he government has not distributed that many tv sets free of cost.The average transmission time is about 9hrs daily except on sunday and saturday.Programming is generally slotted thus entertainment 55.3%,news 14.7% cultural/religious 6.8% educational 9.5% commercial9.1%and others 4.6%. More than 77% of broadcasts are in Bengali.
Bangladesh has 8 Internent service providers who use the 42 VSAT terminals that the Bangladesh Telegraph and television Broad has estimated to facilated high speed data communication services.Bangladesh publication are now accessible on the wed